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怎樣判定真宗教?真宗教與科學又是什麼關係?

置頂哲學園 好文不錯過

再談真宗教

彼得·哈里森著

張蔔天譯

選自《科學與宗教的領地》

西歐分立宗教的出現引出了現代所特有的一個新問題:哪一種宗教是真的?對於歐洲以外諸宗教的充滿想像的構建進一步加劇了這個問題。 當宗教被理解為一種內在的虔敬態度時, 其道路是否正確的問題涉及它是否得到了正確的指導和激勵, 或者是否不偏不倚地介於迷信與無神論這兩個極端的正中間。 於是, 我們之前考慮的教父關於真宗教的討論聚焦於崇拜和正確的崇拜物件。 因此之故, 不能把真宗教徑直等同於基督教。

隨著通過信念和實踐來理解的諸宗教首次出現, 【103】真理問題可以被導向其命題內容。 此外, 如果以命題的方式來理解, 那麼只有某些宗教——甚至可能只有一種宗教——是真的, 而其他宗教則必定是假的。 一旦宗教和科學都被理解為信念和實踐的系統, 那麼諸宗教之間發生這種新衝突的可能性則預示著宗教與科學之間的潛在衝突。

對於這個難題, 現代早期有三種可能的反應。 最激進的反應是法國政治哲學家讓·博丹(Jean Bodin)所說的, “每一種宗教都被所有宗教駁倒”(all are refuted by all)。 [1]對於絕大多數現代早期的思想家而言, 包括博丹本人在內, 這種相對主義選項僅僅是一種應當抵制的理論可能性;第二種反應是對新出現的具體化宗教予以駁斥,

堅持認為仍然要把真宗教等同於虔敬。 正如我們所看到的, 這種立場是克利斯蒂安·托馬西烏斯以及名副其實的路德宗虔敬主義者所特有的, 他們強調虔敬的生活和崇高的道德標準。 自那以來, 許多神學家和基督教團體都拒不認為基督教是眾宗教當中的一種宗教;第三種反應則是承認甚至擁護宗教的命題性, 設法在如此理解的諸宗教的競爭性主張之間進行裁決。 這一選項或它的某種版本得到廣泛採納, 因為它符合基督教是真宗教這個近乎普遍的假設, 並堅信其真理可以通過理性論證來確立。 在這一過程中, 西方科學(越來越被視為理性的一種獨特體現)將通過確證或質疑基督教的真理主張而漸漸發揮重要作用。

羅伯特·波義耳被普遍視為現代化學之父, 也許最出名的是以他的名字命名的氣體定律, 他在一部討論“宗教多樣性”的未發表作品中提出了競爭性真理主張的問題。 與同時代的許多科學家一樣, 波義耳對宗教事務有持久的興趣。 他指出, 世界上有許多民族, 存在著四大教派(基督徒、猶太人、穆斯林和異教徒), 其中每一個教派都可以分成他所謂的“若干不同的信念系統”。 一旦我們把諸宗教看成相互競爭的信念系統, 【104】我們就面臨一個特殊的問題:

既然每一個交戰教派都有有學問的人追隨, 但凡謹慎或節制的人都不會設想, 在各種不同意見的包圍下, 他有可能擁護唯一的真宗教。

尤其是, 每個人都堅持自己的宗教是真的, 所有人都承認只有一種真宗教, 而有些人懷疑沒有一種宗教完全為真。 [2]

其他人也以類似的方式表達了這個難題。 [3]如此理解的宗教的真理性現在漸漸取決於一個重要的問題, 即如何在這些“信念系統”的競爭性說法之間作出裁決。 顯然, 這種宗教真理觀不同於奥古斯丁的觀念, 他認為真宗教自歷史之初就已經存在;也不同於菲奇諾的觀念, 他認為任何指向神的宗教都是真基督教;甚至也不同於瑞士宗教改革家烏爾裡希·茨溫利的觀念, 他認為基督徒能夠顯示真宗教和假宗教。 17世紀開始出現一種對真宗教的完全不同的理解, 也出現了確定構成它的命題是否為真的方法。

要想評價某種歷史宗教是否為真, 一種方式是追溯相關信念的世系, 通過這種宗教原初的權威歷史來源來衡量這些信念。 就基督教而言, 這需要用證據來表明, 當時的基督教形式符合據信由耶穌講授、並由其門徒傳承下來的宗教。 這受到了一種想法的激勵, 即在西元1世紀曾經存在過一種原初的、理想的基督教, 其界限由其教理內容來界定。 這種標準在17世紀起作用的一個清晰跡象是, 我們常常會看到諸如“由使徒所教導和確立的真宗教”這樣的說法。 [4]例如, 英格蘭牧師和虔誠的作家傑瑞米·泰勒(Jeremy Taylor, 1613-1667)談到了“基督本人所教導的基督教的基本原理”。 [5]與泰勒同時代的清教神學家約翰·歐文(John Owen, 1616-1683)雖然來自神學譜系的另一側, 【105】但也類似地談到“耶穌基督所教導的、《聖經》中所包含的宗教”。[6]湯瑪斯·斯普拉特(Thomas Sprat,1635-1713)主教是為英國皇家學會和新實驗科學辯護的一個關鍵人物,這並非巧合,他寫道:“基督本人更通曉其自身宗教的利益和能力。他知道,他降生於世是……為了引入一種理性的、道德的、屬靈的教理,以及一種樸素真摯的、拯救性的方式來教導它。”[7]在這類情感中,我們看到了一種想法,即耶穌曾公開宣佈過一種命題式的宗教。這並不是說個人的虔敬對於這些人來說變得不再重要。事實上,在許多人看來,個人的虔敬仍然是基督徒生命觀的一個核心方面。不過現在,與傳統上對虔敬的強調相伴隨的是對基督教的一種新的理解,即把基督教看成一種由基督創立的命題式宗教。這種發展很新穎,因為傳統上認為,神在基督之中顯示自己,而不是顯示為一種宗教。這種論證方式不太容易招致哲學或科學的反駁,但歷史批判方法可以對它進行評判。[8]

歷史論據也許有助於解決哪種基督教教派可以自稱真理的問題,但宗教概念的興起也導致有可能提出一個更為激進的問題,即基督教本身(無論表現為哪種教派)是否是真的。因此,除了關於特定教理傳統是否具有歷史真實性的這些論證以外,還出現了一系列爭論來表明基督教信念的合理性。17世紀的宗教文獻中充滿了致力於討論基督教的“根據和理由”、“證據”、“證明”以及“證實”的標題,以及對競爭性信條“不偏不倚的比較”和“考察”。[9]波義耳曾經毫無遮掩地闡明了17世紀宗教信徒的困境,他提出,人所選擇的宗教必須“已經充分衡量了它的理由和論據,將它與來自每一種不同的偉大宗教的辯護作過比較”。[10]也許毫不奇怪,這些比較性的練習通常(但並不總是)會得出結論說,比較性的證據非常支持我們相信基督教的教理。

【106】理查·巴克斯特(Richard Baxter)的《基督教的理由》(Reasons of the Christian Religion,1667)提供了一個典型例子。巴克斯特是著名的清教作家和不從國教派牧師,他在扉頁向讀者承諾,該書將“通過自然證據證明神的存在”,並“通過超自然證據和自然證據證明基督教信念定然為真”。[11]認為宗教可以得到理性辯護,這種觀念依賴於新的宗教觀。對於認同這一理想的人來說,完美的宗教是由顛簸不破的邏輯證明牢固確立的一套命題。虛構的瑪卡裡亞(Macaria)王國——1641年出版的一本匿名小冊子中描述的清教烏托邦——中的居民所擁有的正是這樣一種信條:“他們的宗教並不關注各種意見和教派,而是由不可能錯的信條所構成,這些信條可以通過駁不倒的論證來證明,經得起激烈爭論的嚴峻考驗”。[12]這些宗教進路將會開創約翰·亨利·紐曼(John Henry Newman)站在19世紀的有利位置所蔑稱的“證據時代”。[13]

伴隨著這種對理性證明的強調,人們對信仰和信念有了一種不同的理解。正如我們所看到的,信念曾經要求信任一個人,信仰曾經是一種灌注的德性。而現如今,信念成了從理智上對命題予以贊同。於是,卓越的神學家、古典學家和數學家,在以撒·牛頓之前擔任劍橋大學盧卡遜教席(the Lucasian Chair)的以撒·巴羅(Isaac Barrow,1630-1677)宣稱,“信仰的固有對象是……某個命題”。這可以擴展到“某個命題系統”,比如在“真宗教中所講授的所有命題”這一特定情形中。至於對一個人的信任(fiducia),實際上可以歸結為贊同(assensus)有關這個人的命題:“信任一個人或物只是一個簡短的表達,(比喻性地)意指確信與那個人有關的某個命題為真。”[14]用現代分析宗教哲學家的話來說,“信仰”(belief in)就等同於“相信……”(belief that)。

這種觀念相當不同于教父把信念理解成與信任和服從有關的觀念。它也不同于湯瑪斯·阿奎那的立場,他在《神學大全》關於信仰的第一個問題中討論了信仰的固有物件。阿奎那的結論是,信仰的固有物件並非某個命題,【107】而是一種東西——“第一真理”(First Truth)或神本身。[15]阿奎那明確承認命題式真理——信條——很重要,但他堅稱,贊同這些條目為真的根據在於神是可信賴的,而不在於比如說人的理性證詞。[16]至於對神的信仰(belief in God),而不是關於神的信念(beliefs about God),阿奎那依照奥古斯丁的看法主張前者不能歸結為後者,因為我們確信,關於神的信念的真最終依賴於我們對這些啟示真理之神聖來源的信任態度。[17]此外,信仰條目不可避免是不完整的和部分的,正如阿奎那所說,“信仰的東西不是憑藉自身給出的,而是通過無法表達或再現它們的某些語詞和相似物給出的;因此,我們就像通過黑暗的鏡子來認識它們”。[18]於是在某種程度上,由於缺乏精確的語詞表達來把握神學真理,對命題的所有贊同都必然是內隱的。

法蘭西斯·培根對異端的早期討論中還保持著信念與信任之間這種舊的關聯。在《神聖的沉思》(Meditationes Sacrae,1597)中,培根指出,無神論的首要含義並非缺乏恰當的命題式信念,異端的首要含義也並非贊同錯誤的命題式信念,毋寧說,兩者都源于缺乏信任——“反抗和反叛神的能力;不相信他彰顯意志的話”。[19]當然,無神論和異端都與錯誤的信念有關,但這些信念乃是源於一種更基本的道德缺陷。在這方面,培根對異端的理解類似于荷蘭人文主義者鹿特丹的伊拉斯謨(Erasmus of Rotterdam,1466-1536),後者之前曾提出異端的四個必要條件:曲解教理,頑固堅持謬誤,企圖獲得個人利益,蓄意而為。[20]因此,與異端相關聯的駡名(往往令生活在啟蒙運動之後的人感到困惑)可以部分歸因於這種道德維度。

然而,在17世紀下半葉的一些頗具影響的英格蘭新教思想家看來,應把信仰和信念歸結為一種認知行為,而不是一種關係德性。信仰之所以有效,是因為它所指向的命題具有內在的合理性。在切題的《對新教根據的理性解釋》(Rational Account of the Grounds of the Protestant Religion,1664)中,【108】神學家愛德華·斯蒂林弗利特(Edward Stillingfleet)宣稱,信仰是“心靈的一種理性的和推理的行為……是對證據的贊同,或促使心靈贊同的理由”。與新實驗科學關係最密切的哲學家約翰·洛克的立場也體現了這種新的信仰進路。雖然他不同意斯蒂林弗利特在一些關鍵神學議題上的看法,但洛克和他都認為,應把“信仰”理解為“對命題予以贊同”,就宗教信仰而言應當理解為“基於最高理性的贊同”。[21]洛克明確拒絕了作為信任(fiducia)的信仰概念,因為在他看來,這導致了不講明的信仰(implicit faith)和不作調查:“有的人(自然是大多數)往往輕信各種事情,他們的心亦往往懶散地受制於他人的命令和統治,因此,他們便在各種學說方面誤用了自己的贊同能力,而就其職責說來,他們本應對各種學說進行認真考察,而不應帶著不講明的信仰盲目地輕信。”[22]不講明的信仰,或信任(fiducia)意義上的信仰,僅僅是“不作調查就贊同”。[23]洛克還在其《論寬容》(Letters Concerning Toleration)中談到了帶定冠詞的“真宗教”(the true religion),將它等同於帶定冠詞的“基督宗教”(the Christian religion)。[24]

正是在這一點上,新科學漸漸發揮了重要作用,因為17世紀的自然史和自然哲學負有一種使命,要為新的命題式宗教提供一些一般理由。在此過程中,它們促進了宗教的具體化(也就是說,宗教被理解成一個需要某種程度的理性支援的信念系統),同時也鞏固了它們自身作為對宗教有益的活動的地位。於是乎,現代科學在這一時期的面貌部分取決於它與新形成的“宗教”觀的相互作用。科學知識和宗教知識的獲得手段將會趨於一致,科學與宗教將在一定程度上漸漸分享共同的認識論基礎。[25]然而,建立這種共同的認知基礎使新科學得以支持新宗教存在著後顧之憂,因為在科學與宗教之間這種最初的正面關係中潛藏著一些種子,將使未來變得更加衝突。

[1] Jean Bodin, Colloquium of the Seven about the Secrets of the Sublime, trans. Marion Kurtz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 256.

[2] Robert Boyle, “The Diversity of Religions,” in The Works of Robert Boyle, ed. Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis, 12 vols. (London: Chatto and Pickering, 1999–2000), vol. 14, p. 264 (Boyle Papers, vol. 4, fol. 281).

[3] Thus, for example, “How to find out the true Faith & Religion it is a matter of very great difficulty . . . by reason that there are many faiths and religions in the world, and of all these there is but one true, and all the rest be false.” This statement appears in the preface to a seventeenth-century translation of Augustine’s De utilitate credendi. The translator, A.P., gives the work this extended title: The Profit of Believing: Very usefull Both for all those that are not yet resolved what Religion they ought to embrace: And for them that desire to know whither their Religion be true or no (London, 1651). Another influential writer on this topic was Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, De Religione Laici [1645], ed. and trans. Harold R. Hutcheson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944) (see esp. p. 87). See also Samuel Pufendorf, Nature and Qualification of Religion in Reference to Civil Society, trans. Jodocus Crull, ed. Simone Zurbuchen (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2002), p. 11.

[4] Anthony Gilby and William Kethe, The appellation of Iohn Knoxe . . . (Geneva, 1558), p. 12v. Cf. Richard Bernard: “The Christian Religion taught at Ierusalem by the Apostles, and other Disciples of Christ, was our Religion, as by the first Argument is prooued from the Apostles writings.” Look beyond Luther (London, 1623), p. 28. Also Heinrich Bullinger, Fiftie Godly and Learned Sermons (London, 1577), p. 181; Nicholas Byfield, The Rule of Faith (London, 1626), p. 307; John Owen, Animadversions on a Treatise Entitled “Fiat Lux,” in Works of John Owen, D. D., 16 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1842), vol. 14, pp. 19 f.

[5] Jeremy Taylor, Symbolon theologikon (London, 1674), p. 6.

[6] John Owen, Truth and Innocence Vindicated (London, 1669), p. 30.

[7] Thomas Sprat, Sermons Preached upon Several Occasions (London, 1697), p. 2.

[8] 作者在這裡說的是,要想證明某個基督教教派是“真的”,一種方式是聲稱,它最能代表由基督純創立的原初的純粹形式。於是,該論證將是一種歷史論證,它將某個基督教教派的世系追溯到新約時期,或者將它的教導與新約的教導相比較,從而聲稱某個教派真正體現或真實體現了原初的宗教。這與哲學評價不同,哲學評價會考察該教派的教理和實踐,通過其合理性來作出判定。——譯者注

[9] For examples, see Harrison, “Religion” and the Religions, pp. 19–28.

[10] Robert Boyle, Boyle Papers at the Library of the Royal Society of London, vol. 4, fol. 74r; vol. 1, fol. 61r.

[11] Although these “evidences” were not then necessarily understood in terms of what we would regard as objective proofs, they were increasingly so from the beginning of the seventeenth century. For many Puritan writers, however, “experimental” evidence of religious convictions came from profoundly personal experiences. See Harrison, “Experimental Religion and Experimental Science in Early Modern England,” Intellectual History Review 21 (2011): 413–33.

[12] [Gabriel Plattes], A Description of the Famous Kingdome of Macaria (London, 1641). Authorship was traditionally ascribed to Samuel Hartlib, but Charles Webster has convincingly argued that it was the work of Gabriel Plattes. Charles Webster, “The Authorship and Significance of Macaria,” Past and Present 56 (1972): 34–48.

[13] John Henry Newman, Fifteen Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (New York, 1918), p. 197. Prominent eighteenth-century works in the genre include Joseph Addison, The Evidences of the Christian Religion [1721] (London, 1807); William Paley, View of the Evidences of Christianity, 2 vols. (London, 1794); Soame Jenyns, View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion (1776); Mark Hopkins, Evidences of Christianity [1846] (Boston, 1909).

[14] Isaac Barrow, Sermon IV, “Of Justifying Faith,” in The Works of Isaac Barrow, 3 vols. (New York: John Riker, 1845), vol. 2, p. 207.

[15] Thomas Aquinas, ST 2a2ae, 1, 1. In the next question (1, 2) Aquinas nuances this by allowing that the object of faith may be considered in two ways, “namely the thing itself about which we have faith . . . and the object of faith as something complex by way of a proposition.”

[16] Thomas Aquinas, De veritate 14.8.9. Here lies the difference between faith, a theological virtue, and the intellectual virtues of science and understanding (ST 2a2ae, 1, 4). W. C. Smith has also argued that for Aquinas “assent” (assensio, assensus) means something more like “agreement, approbation, applause, approval.” Smith, Faith and Belief, pp. 283 ff.; cf. Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1879), p. 177. This reading has its problems (see Frederick J. Crossin, “‘Fides’ and ‘Credere’: W. C. Smith on Aquinas,” Journal of Religion 65 [1985]: 399–412), but it is plausible to suggest that “assent” for Aquinas retains some of its original links with the realm of feeling (sentio, sensus). What we can say is that in Aquinas the element of trust that is required by implicit faith extends beyond confidence in the utterances of ecclesiastical authorities to the source of revealed truths—God himself.

[17] Aquinas thus upholds the Augustinian formula that distinguishes between believing God, believing in a God, and believing in/on God (credere Deo, credere Deum, credere in Deum). ST 2a2ae, 2, 2. Here Aquinas seems to imply that “God exists” means something different for Christians and non-Christians, because unbelievers “do not truly believe in a God.” See Victor Preller, Divine Science and the Science of God: A Reformulation of Thomas Aquinas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 228. Cf. Augustine, Homilies on the Gospel of John, Tractate 29, 6; Expositions of the Psalms 77, 8. These distinctions relate to that other medieval distinction between fides quae and fides qua creditur (the faith that is believed, and the faith by which it is believed).

[18] Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Toronto: Pontifical Institute, 1997), pp. 24, 1, iii.

[19] Francis Bacon, “Of Heresies,” Translation of the Meditationes Sacrae, Works, vol. 14, p. 94. It is in this passage, incidentally, that Bacon makes his oft-misinterpreted remark that “knowledge is power” (scientia potestas est). The reference is to divine power, and in full the passage should be translated “his [God’s] knowledge is his power.”

[20] Erasmus, Ecclesiastes [1535], in Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami Opera Omnia, ed. J. Clericus (Leyden, 1703–6), 10 vols., vol. 5, col. 1081B.

[21] Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding, pp. 44, 667. For Thomas, by way of contrast, it is the object of faith—God— who moves the will to give assent, and not reason and evidence. ST 2a2ae, 1, 4.

[22] Locke, Essay, p. 99. For Locke’s condemnation of implicit faith, see A Third Letter for Toleration, in The Works of John Locke, 12th ed. (1823) vol. 6, pp. 152, 407; Locke, Of the Conduct of the Understanding, 5th ed., ed. Thomas Fowler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1901), p. 6; Locke: A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity, in Works of John Locke, 12th ed. (1823), vol. 7, p. 296.

[23] Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding, p. 400. See also Locke, A Third Letter for Toleration, Works, vol. 6, pp. 203, 354, 457.

[24] Locke, A Third Letter for Toleration, Works, vol. 6, pp. 63, 144. This identification is even stronger in the writing of Locke’s correspondent, Jonas Proast, The Argument of the “Letter concerning Toleration” considered and answered (Oxford, 1690). Thomas Hobbes, the other great seventeenth-century English philosopher, had already expressed similar views about “faith,” “belief in,” and implicit faith in his Leviathan (1651). Noting that the expression “believe in” (credo in) occurs only in the writings of divines, he astutely observed that this usage “hath raised many disputes over the right object of the Christian faith.” Hobbes concluded that “by believing in, as it is in the creed, is meant, not trust in the person; but confession and acknowledgement of the doctrine.” Leviathan ch. 7, paras. 5–7, ed. C. B. Macpherson (Ringwood: Penguin, 1982), p. 130.

[25] Further on this theme see Stephen Gaukroger, The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, 1210–1685 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 3, 7–8, 497; The Collapse of Mechanism and the Rise of Sensibility: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, 1680–1760 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 41; Peter Harrison, “Physico-Theology and the Mixed Sciences: The Role of Theology in Early Modern Natural Philosophy,” in The Science of Nature in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Peter Anstey and John Schuster (Dordrecht: Springer, 2005), pp. 165–83. Aquinas had explicitly distinguished the realm of faith from that of the intellectual virtues of science and understanding. ST 2a2ae, 1, 4. Cf. George Downame: “Science is begotten by virtue of demonstrative reason; so faith is not demonstrated but is undertaken by the virtue or power of the will.” A Treatise of Iustification (London, 1633), p. 359.

【105】但也類似地談到“耶穌基督所教導的、《聖經》中所包含的宗教”。[6]湯瑪斯·斯普拉特(Thomas Sprat,1635-1713)主教是為英國皇家學會和新實驗科學辯護的一個關鍵人物,這並非巧合,他寫道:“基督本人更通曉其自身宗教的利益和能力。他知道,他降生於世是……為了引入一種理性的、道德的、屬靈的教理,以及一種樸素真摯的、拯救性的方式來教導它。”[7]在這類情感中,我們看到了一種想法,即耶穌曾公開宣佈過一種命題式的宗教。這並不是說個人的虔敬對於這些人來說變得不再重要。事實上,在許多人看來,個人的虔敬仍然是基督徒生命觀的一個核心方面。不過現在,與傳統上對虔敬的強調相伴隨的是對基督教的一種新的理解,即把基督教看成一種由基督創立的命題式宗教。這種發展很新穎,因為傳統上認為,神在基督之中顯示自己,而不是顯示為一種宗教。這種論證方式不太容易招致哲學或科學的反駁,但歷史批判方法可以對它進行評判。[8]

歷史論據也許有助於解決哪種基督教教派可以自稱真理的問題,但宗教概念的興起也導致有可能提出一個更為激進的問題,即基督教本身(無論表現為哪種教派)是否是真的。因此,除了關於特定教理傳統是否具有歷史真實性的這些論證以外,還出現了一系列爭論來表明基督教信念的合理性。17世紀的宗教文獻中充滿了致力於討論基督教的“根據和理由”、“證據”、“證明”以及“證實”的標題,以及對競爭性信條“不偏不倚的比較”和“考察”。[9]波義耳曾經毫無遮掩地闡明了17世紀宗教信徒的困境,他提出,人所選擇的宗教必須“已經充分衡量了它的理由和論據,將它與來自每一種不同的偉大宗教的辯護作過比較”。[10]也許毫不奇怪,這些比較性的練習通常(但並不總是)會得出結論說,比較性的證據非常支持我們相信基督教的教理。

【106】理查·巴克斯特(Richard Baxter)的《基督教的理由》(Reasons of the Christian Religion,1667)提供了一個典型例子。巴克斯特是著名的清教作家和不從國教派牧師,他在扉頁向讀者承諾,該書將“通過自然證據證明神的存在”,並“通過超自然證據和自然證據證明基督教信念定然為真”。[11]認為宗教可以得到理性辯護,這種觀念依賴於新的宗教觀。對於認同這一理想的人來說,完美的宗教是由顛簸不破的邏輯證明牢固確立的一套命題。虛構的瑪卡裡亞(Macaria)王國——1641年出版的一本匿名小冊子中描述的清教烏托邦——中的居民所擁有的正是這樣一種信條:“他們的宗教並不關注各種意見和教派,而是由不可能錯的信條所構成,這些信條可以通過駁不倒的論證來證明,經得起激烈爭論的嚴峻考驗”。[12]這些宗教進路將會開創約翰·亨利·紐曼(John Henry Newman)站在19世紀的有利位置所蔑稱的“證據時代”。[13]

伴隨著這種對理性證明的強調,人們對信仰和信念有了一種不同的理解。正如我們所看到的,信念曾經要求信任一個人,信仰曾經是一種灌注的德性。而現如今,信念成了從理智上對命題予以贊同。於是,卓越的神學家、古典學家和數學家,在以撒·牛頓之前擔任劍橋大學盧卡遜教席(the Lucasian Chair)的以撒·巴羅(Isaac Barrow,1630-1677)宣稱,“信仰的固有對象是……某個命題”。這可以擴展到“某個命題系統”,比如在“真宗教中所講授的所有命題”這一特定情形中。至於對一個人的信任(fiducia),實際上可以歸結為贊同(assensus)有關這個人的命題:“信任一個人或物只是一個簡短的表達,(比喻性地)意指確信與那個人有關的某個命題為真。”[14]用現代分析宗教哲學家的話來說,“信仰”(belief in)就等同於“相信……”(belief that)。

這種觀念相當不同于教父把信念理解成與信任和服從有關的觀念。它也不同于湯瑪斯·阿奎那的立場,他在《神學大全》關於信仰的第一個問題中討論了信仰的固有物件。阿奎那的結論是,信仰的固有物件並非某個命題,【107】而是一種東西——“第一真理”(First Truth)或神本身。[15]阿奎那明確承認命題式真理——信條——很重要,但他堅稱,贊同這些條目為真的根據在於神是可信賴的,而不在於比如說人的理性證詞。[16]至於對神的信仰(belief in God),而不是關於神的信念(beliefs about God),阿奎那依照奥古斯丁的看法主張前者不能歸結為後者,因為我們確信,關於神的信念的真最終依賴於我們對這些啟示真理之神聖來源的信任態度。[17]此外,信仰條目不可避免是不完整的和部分的,正如阿奎那所說,“信仰的東西不是憑藉自身給出的,而是通過無法表達或再現它們的某些語詞和相似物給出的;因此,我們就像通過黑暗的鏡子來認識它們”。[18]於是在某種程度上,由於缺乏精確的語詞表達來把握神學真理,對命題的所有贊同都必然是內隱的。

法蘭西斯·培根對異端的早期討論中還保持著信念與信任之間這種舊的關聯。在《神聖的沉思》(Meditationes Sacrae,1597)中,培根指出,無神論的首要含義並非缺乏恰當的命題式信念,異端的首要含義也並非贊同錯誤的命題式信念,毋寧說,兩者都源于缺乏信任——“反抗和反叛神的能力;不相信他彰顯意志的話”。[19]當然,無神論和異端都與錯誤的信念有關,但這些信念乃是源於一種更基本的道德缺陷。在這方面,培根對異端的理解類似于荷蘭人文主義者鹿特丹的伊拉斯謨(Erasmus of Rotterdam,1466-1536),後者之前曾提出異端的四個必要條件:曲解教理,頑固堅持謬誤,企圖獲得個人利益,蓄意而為。[20]因此,與異端相關聯的駡名(往往令生活在啟蒙運動之後的人感到困惑)可以部分歸因於這種道德維度。

然而,在17世紀下半葉的一些頗具影響的英格蘭新教思想家看來,應把信仰和信念歸結為一種認知行為,而不是一種關係德性。信仰之所以有效,是因為它所指向的命題具有內在的合理性。在切題的《對新教根據的理性解釋》(Rational Account of the Grounds of the Protestant Religion,1664)中,【108】神學家愛德華·斯蒂林弗利特(Edward Stillingfleet)宣稱,信仰是“心靈的一種理性的和推理的行為……是對證據的贊同,或促使心靈贊同的理由”。與新實驗科學關係最密切的哲學家約翰·洛克的立場也體現了這種新的信仰進路。雖然他不同意斯蒂林弗利特在一些關鍵神學議題上的看法,但洛克和他都認為,應把“信仰”理解為“對命題予以贊同”,就宗教信仰而言應當理解為“基於最高理性的贊同”。[21]洛克明確拒絕了作為信任(fiducia)的信仰概念,因為在他看來,這導致了不講明的信仰(implicit faith)和不作調查:“有的人(自然是大多數)往往輕信各種事情,他們的心亦往往懶散地受制於他人的命令和統治,因此,他們便在各種學說方面誤用了自己的贊同能力,而就其職責說來,他們本應對各種學說進行認真考察,而不應帶著不講明的信仰盲目地輕信。”[22]不講明的信仰,或信任(fiducia)意義上的信仰,僅僅是“不作調查就贊同”。[23]洛克還在其《論寬容》(Letters Concerning Toleration)中談到了帶定冠詞的“真宗教”(the true religion),將它等同於帶定冠詞的“基督宗教”(the Christian religion)。[24]

正是在這一點上,新科學漸漸發揮了重要作用,因為17世紀的自然史和自然哲學負有一種使命,要為新的命題式宗教提供一些一般理由。在此過程中,它們促進了宗教的具體化(也就是說,宗教被理解成一個需要某種程度的理性支援的信念系統),同時也鞏固了它們自身作為對宗教有益的活動的地位。於是乎,現代科學在這一時期的面貌部分取決於它與新形成的“宗教”觀的相互作用。科學知識和宗教知識的獲得手段將會趨於一致,科學與宗教將在一定程度上漸漸分享共同的認識論基礎。[25]然而,建立這種共同的認知基礎使新科學得以支持新宗教存在著後顧之憂,因為在科學與宗教之間這種最初的正面關係中潛藏著一些種子,將使未來變得更加衝突。

[1] Jean Bodin, Colloquium of the Seven about the Secrets of the Sublime, trans. Marion Kurtz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 256.

[2] Robert Boyle, “The Diversity of Religions,” in The Works of Robert Boyle, ed. Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis, 12 vols. (London: Chatto and Pickering, 1999–2000), vol. 14, p. 264 (Boyle Papers, vol. 4, fol. 281).

[3] Thus, for example, “How to find out the true Faith & Religion it is a matter of very great difficulty . . . by reason that there are many faiths and religions in the world, and of all these there is but one true, and all the rest be false.” This statement appears in the preface to a seventeenth-century translation of Augustine’s De utilitate credendi. The translator, A.P., gives the work this extended title: The Profit of Believing: Very usefull Both for all those that are not yet resolved what Religion they ought to embrace: And for them that desire to know whither their Religion be true or no (London, 1651). Another influential writer on this topic was Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, De Religione Laici [1645], ed. and trans. Harold R. Hutcheson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944) (see esp. p. 87). See also Samuel Pufendorf, Nature and Qualification of Religion in Reference to Civil Society, trans. Jodocus Crull, ed. Simone Zurbuchen (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2002), p. 11.

[4] Anthony Gilby and William Kethe, The appellation of Iohn Knoxe . . . (Geneva, 1558), p. 12v. Cf. Richard Bernard: “The Christian Religion taught at Ierusalem by the Apostles, and other Disciples of Christ, was our Religion, as by the first Argument is prooued from the Apostles writings.” Look beyond Luther (London, 1623), p. 28. Also Heinrich Bullinger, Fiftie Godly and Learned Sermons (London, 1577), p. 181; Nicholas Byfield, The Rule of Faith (London, 1626), p. 307; John Owen, Animadversions on a Treatise Entitled “Fiat Lux,” in Works of John Owen, D. D., 16 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1842), vol. 14, pp. 19 f.

[5] Jeremy Taylor, Symbolon theologikon (London, 1674), p. 6.

[6] John Owen, Truth and Innocence Vindicated (London, 1669), p. 30.

[7] Thomas Sprat, Sermons Preached upon Several Occasions (London, 1697), p. 2.

[8] 作者在這裡說的是,要想證明某個基督教教派是“真的”,一種方式是聲稱,它最能代表由基督純創立的原初的純粹形式。於是,該論證將是一種歷史論證,它將某個基督教教派的世系追溯到新約時期,或者將它的教導與新約的教導相比較,從而聲稱某個教派真正體現或真實體現了原初的宗教。這與哲學評價不同,哲學評價會考察該教派的教理和實踐,通過其合理性來作出判定。——譯者注

[9] For examples, see Harrison, “Religion” and the Religions, pp. 19–28.

[10] Robert Boyle, Boyle Papers at the Library of the Royal Society of London, vol. 4, fol. 74r; vol. 1, fol. 61r.

[11] Although these “evidences” were not then necessarily understood in terms of what we would regard as objective proofs, they were increasingly so from the beginning of the seventeenth century. For many Puritan writers, however, “experimental” evidence of religious convictions came from profoundly personal experiences. See Harrison, “Experimental Religion and Experimental Science in Early Modern England,” Intellectual History Review 21 (2011): 413–33.

[12] [Gabriel Plattes], A Description of the Famous Kingdome of Macaria (London, 1641). Authorship was traditionally ascribed to Samuel Hartlib, but Charles Webster has convincingly argued that it was the work of Gabriel Plattes. Charles Webster, “The Authorship and Significance of Macaria,” Past and Present 56 (1972): 34–48.

[13] John Henry Newman, Fifteen Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (New York, 1918), p. 197. Prominent eighteenth-century works in the genre include Joseph Addison, The Evidences of the Christian Religion [1721] (London, 1807); William Paley, View of the Evidences of Christianity, 2 vols. (London, 1794); Soame Jenyns, View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion (1776); Mark Hopkins, Evidences of Christianity [1846] (Boston, 1909).

[14] Isaac Barrow, Sermon IV, “Of Justifying Faith,” in The Works of Isaac Barrow, 3 vols. (New York: John Riker, 1845), vol. 2, p. 207.

[15] Thomas Aquinas, ST 2a2ae, 1, 1. In the next question (1, 2) Aquinas nuances this by allowing that the object of faith may be considered in two ways, “namely the thing itself about which we have faith . . . and the object of faith as something complex by way of a proposition.”

[16] Thomas Aquinas, De veritate 14.8.9. Here lies the difference between faith, a theological virtue, and the intellectual virtues of science and understanding (ST 2a2ae, 1, 4). W. C. Smith has also argued that for Aquinas “assent” (assensio, assensus) means something more like “agreement, approbation, applause, approval.” Smith, Faith and Belief, pp. 283 ff.; cf. Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1879), p. 177. This reading has its problems (see Frederick J. Crossin, “‘Fides’ and ‘Credere’: W. C. Smith on Aquinas,” Journal of Religion 65 [1985]: 399–412), but it is plausible to suggest that “assent” for Aquinas retains some of its original links with the realm of feeling (sentio, sensus). What we can say is that in Aquinas the element of trust that is required by implicit faith extends beyond confidence in the utterances of ecclesiastical authorities to the source of revealed truths—God himself.

[17] Aquinas thus upholds the Augustinian formula that distinguishes between believing God, believing in a God, and believing in/on God (credere Deo, credere Deum, credere in Deum). ST 2a2ae, 2, 2. Here Aquinas seems to imply that “God exists” means something different for Christians and non-Christians, because unbelievers “do not truly believe in a God.” See Victor Preller, Divine Science and the Science of God: A Reformulation of Thomas Aquinas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 228. Cf. Augustine, Homilies on the Gospel of John, Tractate 29, 6; Expositions of the Psalms 77, 8. These distinctions relate to that other medieval distinction between fides quae and fides qua creditur (the faith that is believed, and the faith by which it is believed).

[18] Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Toronto: Pontifical Institute, 1997), pp. 24, 1, iii.

[19] Francis Bacon, “Of Heresies,” Translation of the Meditationes Sacrae, Works, vol. 14, p. 94. It is in this passage, incidentally, that Bacon makes his oft-misinterpreted remark that “knowledge is power” (scientia potestas est). The reference is to divine power, and in full the passage should be translated “his [God’s] knowledge is his power.”

[20] Erasmus, Ecclesiastes [1535], in Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami Opera Omnia, ed. J. Clericus (Leyden, 1703–6), 10 vols., vol. 5, col. 1081B.

[21] Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding, pp. 44, 667. For Thomas, by way of contrast, it is the object of faith—God— who moves the will to give assent, and not reason and evidence. ST 2a2ae, 1, 4.

[22] Locke, Essay, p. 99. For Locke’s condemnation of implicit faith, see A Third Letter for Toleration, in The Works of John Locke, 12th ed. (1823) vol. 6, pp. 152, 407; Locke, Of the Conduct of the Understanding, 5th ed., ed. Thomas Fowler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1901), p. 6; Locke: A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity, in Works of John Locke, 12th ed. (1823), vol. 7, p. 296.

[23] Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding, p. 400. See also Locke, A Third Letter for Toleration, Works, vol. 6, pp. 203, 354, 457.

[24] Locke, A Third Letter for Toleration, Works, vol. 6, pp. 63, 144. This identification is even stronger in the writing of Locke’s correspondent, Jonas Proast, The Argument of the “Letter concerning Toleration” considered and answered (Oxford, 1690). Thomas Hobbes, the other great seventeenth-century English philosopher, had already expressed similar views about “faith,” “belief in,” and implicit faith in his Leviathan (1651). Noting that the expression “believe in” (credo in) occurs only in the writings of divines, he astutely observed that this usage “hath raised many disputes over the right object of the Christian faith.” Hobbes concluded that “by believing in, as it is in the creed, is meant, not trust in the person; but confession and acknowledgement of the doctrine.” Leviathan ch. 7, paras. 5–7, ed. C. B. Macpherson (Ringwood: Penguin, 1982), p. 130.

[25] Further on this theme see Stephen Gaukroger, The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, 1210–1685 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 3, 7–8, 497; The Collapse of Mechanism and the Rise of Sensibility: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, 1680–1760 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 41; Peter Harrison, “Physico-Theology and the Mixed Sciences: The Role of Theology in Early Modern Natural Philosophy,” in The Science of Nature in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Peter Anstey and John Schuster (Dordrecht: Springer, 2005), pp. 165–83. Aquinas had explicitly distinguished the realm of faith from that of the intellectual virtues of science and understanding. ST 2a2ae, 1, 4. Cf. George Downame: “Science is begotten by virtue of demonstrative reason; so faith is not demonstrated but is undertaken by the virtue or power of the will.” A Treatise of Iustification (London, 1633), p. 359.

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